The oscillation of the sleep depth as cycles, as is well known presently, is quite clear in this figure. Advances in Sleep Research, vol. 36. Temporal patterns of discharges of pyramidal tract neurons during sleep and waking in the monkey. Experimental methodologies permitted investigation of the responsiveness of dreams to external stimulation and the effects of deprivation of REM sleep. Some peculiarities of the dreams of patients with vestibular diseases. Krueger JM, Obl F. A neuronal group theory of sleep function. Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. Sigmund Freuds theory of dreams suggests that dreams represent unconscious desires, thoughts, wish fulfillment, and motivations. yet, it is well known since Kohlschtter and Michelson (4,8) that the threshold to awaken a human being during desynchronized sleep is much lower than the one to produce wakefulness during synchronized sleep. Figure 9 illustrates an episode of olfactory and vibrissal movements. Unfortunately, despite the opinion of great scientists of the past, most researchers that deal with sleep and dreaming, probably moved by philosophical, religious prejudice and a faulty reasoning, do not accept the idea that non-human animals do dream. Wilson MA, McNaughton BL. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 1966;21:562-77. Our data with rats are quite consistent as to the variation of blood pressure and heart rate during oniric activity. Interestingly enough, if body temperature in cats subjected to pontomesencephalic transection is lowered, the amount of desynchronized sleep increases. Those that are specific to certain behaviors. 37. During wakefulness such periods in rats are concomitant with short but complete immobilization, which is well known to occur when a high degree of attention is being directed to some external object. Sleep 1999;22:409-18. The other is that dreams are caused by forebrain activation by dopamine. Raven Press, New york 1981:405-429. 107. Electrophysiologically, it has been shown that the same type of hippocampal cells that are activated during training in a radial maze are also endogenously reactivated during sleep, which accounts for memory consolidation and for a close correlation between dreams and events preceding sleep (87). The vegetative components, that are phasic increases of heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupillary diameter, and most probably metabolic adjustments as well, are expressed more consistently during a dream, as they are during attentive wakefulness. Foulkes (1982) considered that dreams are so easily forgotten because the brain in desynchronized sleep is in a "reflective state". Jung R, Kornmller AE. Kleitman N. Sleep and Wakefulness. Reactivation of hippocampal ensemble memories during sleep. During the first half of the twentieth century, despite the heavy influence of psychoanalysis, dreaming was again but sporadically studied scientifically. Chase MH, Morales FR. From a very weak inhibition in early infancy, it goes up rapidly up to 15 years of age, evolving asymptotically from this period on. It is well known that during desynchronized sleep the pupil undergoes an increase in diameter (midriasis), which is not produced by direct sympathetic activation but rather to parasympathetic inactivation, that overcomes the tonic pupillary constrictor activity of the parasympathetic system during synchronized sleep. Inasmuch as dreaming seems to occur in most birds and mammals, it is unlikely that it has no function in the animal organism. Frequency clearly increases and becomes regular, as compared with the trend before oniric activity. The gamma-alpha loop has been shown to play no role in producing the movements that characterize dreaming. Roffwarg et al. Maquet P, Pters J, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, Franck G. Nature. The American psychologist Mary Whiton Calkins published in 1893 an important, although entirely unkwnown, article under the title Statistics of Dreams, wherein she introduced the technique of arousing people when they moved parts of the body during sleep and asking them to report their dreams (4,7). Mancia M. One possible function of sleep: to produce dreams. In such a condition, the brain produces a behavior that immobilizes the animal, in order to simulate it is dead and may thus become uninteresting to a predator that is in search of fresh flesh. Kluger J. ), Ermdung, Schlaf und Traum, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, Sttutgart 1971:173-242. Jouvet M. Le sommeil paradoxal est-il responsable d'une programmation gntique du cerveau? With developments in understanding of the neurophysiology of REM sleep, new theories of dreaming were proposed. Eye movements in born-blinds are probably due to a quite different reason. Brain Mechanism and Perceptual Awareness. Mori S, Matysuyama K, Kohyama J, Kobayashi y, Takakusaki K. Neuronal constituents of postural and locomotor control systems and their interactions in cats. What is the Nucleus reticularis pontis oralis is thought to contain the generator of theta rhythm (78,79) and is known to send direct efferents to the hippocampus and the cerebellar cortex, where we found theta waves that correlate closely with those in the hippocampus (Valle, Kubo, Iwamoto & Timo-Iaria, in preparation for publication). 115. In rats we found similar potentials in the amygdala as related to olfactory dreams, expressed as rostrum movements (32). A dream is a conscious experience that occurs during sleep. (ed. Gadea-Ciria M. Plasticity of ponto-geniculo-occipital waves during paradoxical sleep after frontal lobe lesions in the cat. 2021 Aug 30;24(2):543. doi: 10.4081/ripppo.2021.543. The other is that dreams are caused On the other hand, respiration usually undergoes a reduction in frequency and in frequency variation but during dreaming activity the respiratory frequency increases and becomes variable, which is certainly related to the temporal evolution of the oniric experience, as is the case during wakefulness. Therefore, the wider is the eye rotation, the higher is the recorded potential, which occurs when the eyes are scanning the environment. 21. Decety J, Jeannerod M, Durozard DR, Baveal J. Gottesman C, Gandolfo G, Zernicki B. The motoneuron inhibition, responsible for the sleep atonia and abolition of movements, is not complete in infancy (figure 5). Les Belles Lettres, Paris 1978. Generation of sleep is reasonably well known but not that of dreaming. This is for sure the most enigmatic issue about dreaming. Neurosc Res 1993;17:181-202. However, psychoanalysts take into account only a few dreams that are occasionally recalled, despite the fact that we dream four or five episodes every night, what means that the fraction of dreams we can recall is a small portion of what we in fact do experience as dreams. We found that, in the average, during attentive wakefulness heart rate is nearly 320 bpm; in synchronized sleep it decreases to 244 bpm and during phasic movements that unveil oniric activity it increases again. Clipboard, Search History, and several other advanced features are temporarily unavailable. Experimental study. The authors suggest that such a disturbance of reproduction occurs because desynchronized sleep (and consequently dreaming) was prevented to occur normally in infancy but the functional meaning of this interesting phenomenon. Doneshka P, Kehaiyov A. This theory is supported by the fact that the body has decreased metabolism by up to 10% during sleep. Therefore, desynchronized sleep should be ascribed a homeothermic function (116). Dement WC. 74. Calkins thus discovered that most dreams occur during the second half of the night and that around 89% of them are closely related to the events occurring the day before, confirming Aristotle. Nature, 2002, submitted. Hobson JA, Pace-Schott EF, Stickgold R. Dreaming and the brain: toward a cognitive neuroscience of conscious states. Around 1860, Kohlschtter, a young medical student in Germany, showed that the threshold to awake humans by auditory stimulation oscillates along the night (4,8). & Bertini, M. 68. Neurosc Biobehav Rev 1992;16:372-97. A theory that has many followers is the one that connects dreams, in particular, desynchronized sleep in general, with memory consolidation. The preferential eye movements direction may be related to the dream content and, perhaps, as such also to hemispheric dominance but it should always be taken into consideration that any movement originated by a dream is always faulty, otherwise we would perform normal behaviors during a dream, what does not happen due to the inhibition of motoneurons. This statement is incorrect, inasmuch as electro-oscillograms during both states in humans are not so similar as to confound an observer and in rats we have found that theta waves that occur in both attentive wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep are largely different. Vanni-Mercier G, Pelisson D, Goffart L, Sakai K, Jouvet M. Eye saccade dynamics during paradoxical sleep in the cat. 94. Intermediate state of sleep in the cat. De Sanctis S. I Sogni e il Sonno. Baust W. Die Phnomenologie des Schlafes. Moruzzi G. Action inhibitrice du palocervelet sur les reflexes circulatoires et respiratoires d'origine sino-carotidinne. Milbrandt J. Their data do not depart from modern studies of the same kind. Consequently, Foulkes concludes that they do not dream but this conclusion is probably incorrect, inasmuch as at this age children have a highly limited narrating capacity and their poor reports about dreams are certainly linked to such a limitation, not their absence. However, human oniric behaviors are also expressed as lips, tongue and facial movements, as well as fingers, toes and whole limbs jerks, as described above. Harvey Lect 1963;58:233-97. 87. Confrontations Psychiatriques 1986;27:153-81. Plenum Press, 1990. Kubin L, Davies RO, Pack AI. Mirmiran M, Van den Dungen H, Uylings HBM. eCollection 2019. The latter are absolutely necessary for any neural activity to occur, inasmuch as the oxygen required by the nervous system amounts to 20% of the total oxygen consumption (near ten times as much as the average of the body as a whole). The very essence of dreams is, certainly, memorized information. Hernndez-Pen R. A neurophysiologic model of dreams and hallucinations. Douglas NJ. 88. Those that are common to all behaviors (increase in heart rate, blood pressure, blood flow to the nervous system and muscles, ventilation, pupil diameter and palmar and plantar electrical conductance) and are intended to increase the supply of blood, oxygen, glucose etc. Winson J. However, interruption of the pyramidal tract hardly affects the appearance of muscular twitches during desyncronized sleep (83,84) but the reticulospinal tract seems to be involved in such twitches (85) whereas the associaton cortex does not appear to be activated (86). When the rat moves the head, for example (which may indicate a vestibular dream), heart rate goes up and may be as high as 330 bpm, similar to that occurring during attentive behavior. 46. Such activation of zif-268, which is likely to be correlated with the effect of learning on desynchronized sleep, was larger in the frontal and hippocampal cortices, where memorization is well known to occur. Heiss W-D, Pawlik G, Herholz K, Wagner R, Weinhard K. Regional cerebral glucose metabolism in man during wakefulness, sleep, and dreaming. Salivary, gastric, enteric, pancreatic and billiary secretion and contraction of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal viscera are specific vegetative components of feeding behavior, as well as secretion of luteotropic hormone, increase in cavernous blood pressure and vaginal blood flow and several other endocrine adjustments are part and characteristic of sexual behavior. 111. The .gov means its official. 96. Candia O, Favale E, Guissani A, Rossi G. Blood pressure during natural sleep and during sleep induced by electrical stimulation of the brain stem reticular formation. Accordingly, they are known as PGO (pontine, occipital cortex and lateral geniculate nucleus) potentials. Oka T, Iwakiri H, Mori S. Pontine-induced generalized suppression of postural muscle tone in a reflexively standing acute decerebrate cat. Later, theta waves were also found in rats during both attentive wakefulness and desynchronized sleep (19,30,31,74-76). It should be recalled here that, comparing the dream content in humans with events of the previous day, Calkins found in 1876 that nearly 89% of the reported dreams were closely related to such events. During the medieval era in Spain, by then the very cultural center of Europe (probably of the entire world), and mainly in the 13th century, some Muslim Arabs and Jewish rabis, centered in Cordoba rediscovered the Greek literature, that had been concealed by early Christianism, and translated all that important work into Latin, Arabic and Hebraic. By visually examining the amplitude of theta waves in these examples it seems they vary at random but when the instant variation of voltage is plotted as a function of time, a regular variation appears during the phasic movements (figure 10). Although related to the information fluxogram displayed in figure 2 of the present review, Hernandez-Pon's process involves the function of participating in "adaptive waking behavior", which does not seem to have a real meaning (136). Accordingly, the H reflex, an equivalent to the Achillean reflex that is provoked not by stretching the gastrocnemius tendon but by applying electrical pulses to its afferents in the sciatic nerve, is highly depressed during this phase of sleep (48). 24. Proposed by Harvard psychiatrists J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley in 1977, the theory posits that dreams are your brains attempts to make sense of random patterns of firing neurons while you slumber. 53. 120. 65. Lucrce. It is not known if such a mechanism does exist in humans; if it exists, what is highly possible, we can reason that it is the activity of the chemoreceptor system that senses pO2 that keeps us alive during desynchronized sleep. Phenomenal dream content, however, is not as disorganized as such views imply. "Dreams are not ghosts (phantasmata), since they are closely related to the events of the previous day". As any information consciously identified, a dream triggers a specific behavior, that we call an oniric behavior. Baldissera F, Cesa-Bianchi MG, Mancia M. Phasic events indicating presynaptic inhibition of primary afferents to the spinal cord during desynchronized sleep. J Neurosci 1991;11:2804-11. Cravo SLD, Lopes OU, Fraga CAB, Timo-Iaria C. Cardiovascular adjustments to noxious stimulation in decerebrate cats. Although it may happen in any sleep phase, it prevails during the desynchronized phase. 79. J Neurophysiol 1977;40:284-95. Arch Ital Biol 1965;103:369-96. In: C. Guilleminaut, W. C. Dement and P. Passouant (eds.) Marini G. Motor phenomena during sleep. If we dream we are walking, the electromyographic recordings from muscles involved in such behavior show quite clearly that they are not able to produce normal movements. Several authors also quantified the kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. Brain Res 1996;770:192-201. Evarts EV. Forebrain activation in REM sleep: an FDG, PET study. In non-human animals the report regarding dreams is obviously impossible but, fortunately, a dream can be detected in both humans and other species by analyzing its motor, vegetative and electrophysiological manifestations, as will be described below. Vertes & Eastman (2000), for instance, believe that the stressful conditions in experiments intended to demonstrate a role of desynchronized sleep and dreaming in consolidation of memory spoil the results (88). Bol Inst Est Md Biol Mxico 1962;20:155-64. Arch Ital Biol 1962;100:216-22. Jouvet M. Neurophysiology of the states of sleep. Sleep and dreaming: induction and mediation of REM sleep by cholinergic mechanisms. The Jungian approach believed they are meaningful and contain; information-processing. Schmidt MH, Sakai K, Valatrix JL, Jouvet M. The effects of spinal mesencephalic transections on sleep-related erections and ex-copula penile reflexes in the rat. For the first time, direct and systematic investigation could be made of such topics as the occurrence, qualities, recollection, and childhood development of dreaming. Sleep 1982;5:169-87. (36,37) have recorded contraction of the tympanic muscles (stapedius and tensor tympani) during human sleep. Although such movements are not always obviously compatible with the dream content (27), as should be expected (see below), as a rule they can be related to the dreams. Arch Ital Biol 1969;107:175-216. In humans the electro-oscillograms during desynchronized sleep are expressed as overall cortical desynchronization, whence the adequacy of the name created by Moruzzi, desynchronized sleep. Rerum Natura, I et II. The substrate, physiological mechanism, and function of dreaming have been explained by many scientists from the neurological, psychiatric, psychological, and philosophical perspective. During wakefulness theta waves consistently exhibit a lesser voltage and are less regular than during desynchronized sleep, what makes it easy to tell wakefulness from desynchronized sleep from the shear inspection of the electro-oscillograms (21,30,31,125). University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1963. According to this author, in children at the age of two, when the hippocampus, which is still in the process of development at birth, becomes functional, REM sleep takes on its interpretive memory function (134). Doneshka & Kehaiyov (1978) reported dreams with striking vestibular sensations. Karger, Basel, 1997:65-76. An important contemporary of these authors, Charles Darwin, in his landmarking book Emotions in Man and Animals, published in 1872 and reedited several times in the twentieth century (6), states that "at least birds and mammals do dream", a concept that still remains unchallenged, despite which most researchers that carry out studies on sleep still hold that dreaming is specifically human. eCollection 2021 Aug 12. A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that occur for the most part involuntarily during certain stages of sleep. Important dream theories are Freud's interpretation of dreams, Rados R, Cartwright RD. The number of PGO potentials undergoes a high increase after the frontal ablation, which is suggestive of a tonic inhibition of these potentials by the frontal cortex. The reason why when we dream we are walking we do not get out of the bed and really walk, or when we dream we are talking to someone we do not really talk, is that neural circuits located in the neighborhood of locus coeruleus, in the pontine tegmentum, inhibit the motoneurons and do not allow the real movements to occur. Rapid increase of an immediate early gene messenger RNA in hippocampal neurons by synaptic NMDA receptor activation. WebThe leading theory of dreaming in the early decades of this research was the psychoanalytic, which views dreams as highly meaningful reflections of unconscious mental functioning. Valle AC. The heart rate and breathing quickens, and blood pressure rises. Baust's data regarding the cat are also evident (38). Nature 1989;340:474-6. Editor-translator: Gallop, D., Aris & Phillips Ltd., Warminster, England 1991. Head jerky movements may reflect vestibular dreams. Some authors have not been able to find changes in heart rate and respiration during desynchronized sleep (61) but there are striking demonstrations that blood pressure is reduced (figure 6), attaining values as low as 60 mmHg of systolic pressure; heart rate is also reduced and ventilation decreases (38,62). during desynchronized sleep prevents sustained brain inactivity, which might occur during sleep. Braz J Med Biol Res 1990;23:617-20. In: M. C. Hepp-Reymond & G. Marini (eds.) 55. Its is noteworthy that Weed & Halam's data, published in 1896, are close to those reported by Rechtschaffen & Buchignani in 1992, which was calculated as the mean of the average of seven different studies published by other authors (40). It is interesting to consider that while muscles all over the body are paralyzed during sleep, respiration is little affected, except that some muscles in the upper respiratory airways are inhibited during sleep (44). Not only theta waves do occur in the cerebellar cortex during desynchronized sleep but also spindles and delta waves are found in this organ in synchronized sleep, just as in neocortical areas. The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. Berlucchi G. Mechanismen von Schlafen und Wachen. Jouvet M. Programmation gntique itrative et sommeil paradoxal. 39. At the age between 7 and 9 years Foulkes' subjects produced much more consistent narrations of the dream content, as should be expected (24). Psychoanalysis considers dreams as an important window to the unconscious world, what makes dream interpretation a crucial factor in psychonalytic diagnosis and treatment. Role of pontine tegmentum for locomotor control in mesencephalic cat. 54. Noda H, Adey WR. Simes CA, Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C. Correlation between concomitant theta waves in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the hippocampus, thalamus and neocortex during dreaming in rats. Santos LM, Valle AC, Sameshima K, Silva MTP, Timo-Iaria C. A linear relationship between theta waves frequency and the speed of learning in rats. 42. (eds. 69. 103. Nat Rev Neurosci. Despite the fact that many studies have found that mental activity during wakefulness differs from that during dreaming, the mechanisms involved in both may differ as to the degree of control over the release and combination of memorized information in wakefulness and in desynchronized sleep. Madsen PC, Holm S, Vorstup S, Friberg L, Lassen NA, Wildschiotz LF. 2. Our hypothesis is that the cerebellum is involved in overall corrections of the components of all kinds of behavior, including sleep. If the animal is kept alive by forced feeding and is kept warm, in six days frontal desynchronization and theta waves in the other cortical areas reappear and then not only wakefulness is fully recovered but also desynchronized sleep, including oniric activity. Fos-like immunoreactivity was also found in association with cholinergically induced REM sleep (107,108). Considering that most dreams in rats (31,32) are related to olfaction, not to vision, potentials that resemble PGOs in the amygdala of this animal species should also be taken as signs of dreaming rather than PGOs. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. J Sleep Res 1993;2:63-9. In: Pompeiano, O. His personal oracle, however, disagreed and convinced him that his dreams were warnings from the gods. Contemporary neuroscientific theories often view dreams as epiphenomena, and many of the proposals for their biological function are contradicted by the phenomenology of dreams themselves. This neural activity is then interpreted by the brain as an internal activity. The narrower is the angle of rotation, the lower is the recorded potential, which happens when attention is being directed to a very small part of the object or when the object is very near. Considering dreams as hallucinations, Hernndez-Pen (1966) theorized that they are possible because the system responsible for wakefulness is inactivated during sleep, releasing memory tracings which are brought to consciousness. It is usually taken for granted that PGO potentials are essential manifestations for the electrophysiological identification of dreaming activity but such view is not well founded. Roberts LA, Higgins MJ, O'Shaughnessy CT, Stone TW, Morris BJ. Geschichte der Physiologie. Much effort was devoted to searching for parallels between physiological aspects of REM sleep and characteristics of associated dreams, with modest results. 2022 Nov 3;12(11):1832. doi: 10.3390/jpm12111832. Figure 6 shows an increase in heart rate from 150 bpm to 180 bpm (the latter is the normal heart rate during resting wakefulness in this species), coinciding with the peak of eye movements. Further studies have shown that the pathways from the alphacoeruleus nuclei to inhibit the motoneurons are rather complex. The postynaptic inhibitory control of lumbar motoneurons during the atonia of active sleep: effect of strychnine on motoneuron properties. A nerve growth factor-induced gene encodes a possible trancriptional regulatory factor. Despite such discrepancies, however, during synchronized sleep PRT studies reveal a decrease in global cerebral energy metabolism relative to both waking and desynchronized sleep. 64. Mol Brain Res 1996;38:77-84. During dreaming, however, it is well known that both heart rate and blood pressure undergo short duration increases (as related to the decreased values), which are most likely linked to the oniric behavior. In cats, cortical electro-oscillograms are also desynchronized but in the hippocampus theta waves (that will be later described) predominate. 61. Mori D, Shik ML, yagodnitsyn AS. This is specially true as to bees, that at night do interrupt their hum, "even if they are exposed to the light of a lantern". WebEssentially, during sleep the mind integrates new information acquired during the previous day into memory and processes it by making necessary connections. Shiromani PJ, Winston S, McCarley RW. However, reflex penile erection is facilitated after spinal transection whereas mesencephalic transections significantly increase the latency to its reflex induction, without affecting the percentage of tests eliciting an erectile event. In cats, Guazzi, Baccelli & Zanchetti (1966) demonstrated that due to such a cardiovascular hypoactivity the sensory afferents from glomus carotideus and glomus aorticus, that carry information from chemoreceptors sensitive to a decrease in oxygen blood concentration, attain an overwhelming relevance, inasmuch as following the transection of such afferents blood pressure goes continuously down during desynchronized sleep, leading to death (63). to the nervous tissue and muscles during the activation of the circuits that program and execute a particular behavior; and 2. Thanks to the extraordinary possibilities of functional connections that take place in the brain when the "basic circuitries of our personality are programmed", dreams do contribute to shape new solutions for new problems. 66. By lesioning the alphacoeruleus nuclei such an inhibitory effect is prevented and during oniric activity the movements generated by the dream itself can be expressed, as was clearly demonstrated in Jouvet's Laboratory (50,51) in cats; the animal suddenly gets up, walks, miews and strikes with the paws, as if the animal were awake. 81. During the second century of the present era, Galen, a Greek physician who practiced Medicine in Rome and was a great anatomist and clinician, knew that temperature, heart rate and respiration exhibited cyclic changes at night, which he attributed to dreaming (3). Desseilles M, Dang-Vu TT, Sterpenich V, Schwartz S. Conscious Cogn. 33. Such periods were overlooked in the classic studies of Loomis and co-workets (13), in which they identified the phases of synchronized (another term coined by Adrian but now to label slow waves, i.e., potentials with a low frequency and a high voltage) sleep. 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physiological function dream theory